Megan+O'Shea

Megan O'Shea ANT 3145 Dr. Barber  = = =Dental Disease in Ancient Nubia and it's Correlation to Agriculture and Food Production = 

=**Introduction** = Ancient Nubia throughout time was inhabited by many groups in varying regions. For the purposes of this paper, I will focus mostly on; A-Group, C-Group, and Kerma. Each of these groups used agriculture as a means to feed large portions of their populations. Food production and consumption can dramatically affect the dental pathologies present within a population. Ancient Nubians had a wide variety of food, which was processed by different means. Even while a variety was available, most of the populations diet was based off of foods high in sucrose and carbohydrates.

While many Ancient Nubians had access to a variety of foods, the main staples had severe repercussions for their teeth. The minimal food processing found in much of the food in the area caused a host of dental pathologies. Dental caries or cavities were caused by the high levels of sucrose in the fruit and vegetables many ate. Dental wearing occurred due to the grinding of cereals for bread baking. The buildup of dental calculus occurred as plaque continuously built up over time and was never brushed away. Individuals amongst the higher socio-economic strata had access to different food products, and thus the dental pathology present amongst them was different. Many of those in the higher strata would have had access to meat protein sources, which would have limited the exposure to harmful elements to some extent. Those of higher economic status would have also had access to natron which was sometimes used as an oral disinfectant.

**Brief Overview of A-Group, C-Group and Kerma**
  While the exact geographic properties of Ancient Nubia still remain fairly elusive, distinct cultures located in parts of modern day Egypt and the Sudan, have been defined and studied extensively. Some of the major culture groups in Ancient Nubia include; Kerma, A-Group, and C-Group. For the purpose of this research each of these groups will be looked at. The A-Group is the earliest period that will be discussed in this project, spanning from 3500 - 2300 BCE followed by the C-Group (2200 - 1300 BCE) and the Kerma Period (circa 1720 - 1550BCE) (dentaldisease.pdf).




 * A-Group **


The A-Group is one of many regional groups in Lower Nubia that flourished in Ancient Nubia during the time spanning from 4000 - 3000 BCE. Based off of ceramics and other artifacts found throughout several sites, A-Group cultures have displayed evidence for trade as well as conveyance of ideas over geographically expansive areas (Rampersad 2000; Bard, Shubert 1999). A-Group settlements are generally considered to be seasonal, with some evidence of more established areas (Bard, Shubert 1999). A-Group individuals practiced agriculture, growing wheat, barley and lentils, they also may have practiced animal husbandry (ibid).  



**C-Group **
<span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;"> The C-Group existed throughout the sixth to eighteenth Egyptian dynasties south of Aswan (ibid). C-Group settlements have been found along the Nile, in an area where the land was not considered very fertile (ibid). While their is no corroborating proof, many scholars believe that that C-Group individuals were fairly stationary agriculturists, depending on the annual deluge of the Nile. Some of the staple crops may have included barley, wheat, and legumes (ibid). In addition to the agricultural food sources, many may have collected wild dates as well as hunted and fished for additional food supplements.

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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;"> **<span style="display: block; font-size: 130%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;">Kerma **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;"> ===== Kerma (under the rule of the Cushites) was centered on the East bank of the Nile River near the Third Cataract, and existed for roughly 220 years spanning from around 1720 - 1550 BCE. During Egypt's Second Intermediate Period the Kerma rulers as well as the foreign Hyksos controlled much of the trade along the Nile (Silverman, Brovarski 1997). Kerma is located in an area along the Nile where the floodplain is extensive, and thus the land can be utilized for the raising cattle, sheep and goats as well as sedentary agricultural production (Ring, Salkin, La Boda 1996).

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 * <span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;">Group's Studied **<span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;"> For the purpose of this study, materials on individuals from each of the three previously listed groups will be explored. S.W. Hillson extensively explored the dental remains from several groups both within Nubia and other cultures. Within Nubia; from the A-Group skeletal material for 59 individuals was examined, from the C-Group 33, and from the Kerma Period 299 (Hillson1979).

**<span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;">Food Production and Consumption **
Ancient Nubians had a wide variety of food items available to them. Domestic animals such as; cattle, goats, pigs and sheep were raised throughout the area, and may have been used a source of protein (Hillson 1979). In addition to the domestically raised animals; hare, antelope, wildfowl and fish were also hunted/fished for (ibid). Agriculturally in areas where crops were able to be grown, cereals such as; wheat, barley and millet were grown, in addition to fruits and vegetables (ibid). The area was not without methods in which food could be sweetened and honey, carob, dates, figs, and grape juice were all used to achieve a sweet taste. Food was prepared in many different ways, and consumption varied correlating with socio-economic status as well as to personal preference. Emmer wheat, barley and millet were ground into flour which was then used to make bread. Breads were consumed as a major staple food for most individuals along the Nile, and beer was also brewed from much of the same ingredients used to bake the bread (Roach 2005). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;">

**<span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;">Dental Diseases Present in Skeletal Samples **
Through the different production methods and trends of consumption, the dental decay rates were affected by the food consumed. Some of the dental disease found in the skeletal remains in Ancient Nubia include; dental caries (cavities), dental wearing, and calculus buildup. Dental caries are often caused by sucrose, dental wearing can be caused by minimal food processing, and calculus buildup generally occurs from poor dental hygiene and food habits.

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Dental caries or cavities as they are more commonly known, are often caused by a lack of oral hygiene and diets high in sucrose (Hillson 1979). The average Ancient Nubian consumed most of his or her daily calories in carbohydrates generally through; bread, beer, fruits and vegetables. Caries are formed as plaque builds up on a tooth surface and creates an acid that is normally neutralized by saliva (Kidd 2005). This acid if not neutralized can lead to the demineralization of a tooth surface which can become quite severe (ibid).

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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;"> **<span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;">Dental Wearing **=====

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Dental wearing is generally related to the preparation of food both within the mouth and outside it. In the Nubian areas wearing is most commonly caused by minimal food processing which may have been caused by the grinding of cereals on rough stones (Hillson 1979). Consistent grinding of tooth surface against abrasive materials gradually wears down the tooth and may open orifices for infection (ibid). As a great deal of the caloric intake of the average Ancient Nubians came from bread baked with roughly ground cereals, this may have been a fairly large concern.

**<span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;">Dental Calculus **
Dental calculus is the buildup of bacterial plaque on a tooth surface that has become mineralized (Langland, Langlais, Preece, Howell, Cavalluci 2002). The mouth undergoes acidic episodes where the saliva contains dissolved material which crystallizes plaque which is not dissolved (Hillson 1979). Along with dental caries, the buildup of dental calculus is present on at least 50% of the individual skeletons examined (ibid)

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 110%;"> **<span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;"> Dental Disease Variations amongst Socio-Economic Strata ** Dental disease would have varied within socio-economic strata, as each level had access to different food (ibid). Social elite, or those with access to various sources of meat protein would show different dental pathologies (ibid). Meat generally has less of an abrasive consistency which would allow for a slower rate of wear on those with more meat in their diet than other caloric sources (ibid).

Ancient populations along the Nile River have not been documented as having any dental hygiene practices. While some groups within Ancient Egypt had types of dentistry, there has not been any evidence put forward to support dental hygiene practices (Nicholson, Shaw 2000). Due to poor dental hygiene the dental pathologies that many in this region would have naturally developed would have been exacerbated. Some individuals in Ancient Egypt were known to wash their mouths out with water and natron (a common mineral found in the region which was crushed) to disinfect the area (Strouhal, Strouhal, Forman 1992). Had this practice been more widespread it is possible that the advancement of many dental diseases could have been drastically reduced.
 * <span style="display: block; font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; text-align: center;">Dental Disease Prevention **

=<span style="text-align: center; display: block; font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**Conclusions** = Geographically the borders of Ancient Nubia remain elusive, however many regional groups have been associated with fairly specific regions. I have drawn information from mainly three groups; the A-Group, the C-Group, and the Kerma. While each group existed in either distinct time periods or distinct cultural eras, all of them had similarities. Each group practiced agriculture as a major means of food production which allowed for a host of dental pathologies which have been explored by several authors.

While many food sources were agricultural in nature, a variety was available to many Ancient Nubians. Even though there was a variety in sources, much of those available to many Ancient Nubians was high in carbohydrates and sucrose. The production quality was also fairly low, and much of the grains were ground on rough stone which left grain in the flour used for baking and other food sources.

Dental pathology was present in nearly all of the 400 individual skeletal remains from three sites. Amongst these diseases, the most commonly present are dental carries or cavities which developed due to the high concentration of sucrose. Dental wearing also occurred due to the minerals remaining in the flour. The build-up of dental calculus also is notable in a large number of remains partially due to the poor food production quality and also the poor dental hygiene.

Socio-economic status afforded some the access to varying means to keep their teeth in better condition than others. Members of the social elite had more access to meat proteins which were very low in carbohydrates and sucrose and thus their teeth were exposed to less of the dental stressors than large portions of Ancient Nubia. Even the social elite however made up a large portion of their caloric intake by carbohydrate rich breads, which would have increased the wear on their teeth.

Throughout the Nile River area most were exposed to environments that were unhealthy for their teeth. While there is no record of preventative dentistry, some higher status individuals were known to use natron mixed with water as an oral disinfectant. It is possible to speculate that had more Ancient Nubians participated in this mild form of oral hygiene that the percentage of individuals with dental pathologies would have dramatically decreased.

=<span style="text-align: center; display: block; font-size: 120%; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**Works Cited** =

Armelagos, George J. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 1969 "Disease in Ancient Nubia." //Science// 163, no. 3864 (January 17, 1969): 255-59. Bard, Kathryn A., and Steven Blake Shubert. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... // 1999 Encyclopedia of the archaeology of ancient Egypt //. London: Routledge,. Hillson, S.W. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 1979 "Diet and Dental Disease." //World Archaeology// 11, no. 2 (October 1979): 147-62. Kidd, Edwina A. M. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 2005 //Essentials of Dental Caries The Disease and Its Management//. New York: Oxford UP, USA Langland, Olaf E., Robert P. Langlais, John W. Preece, Joan Howell, and Dorothea M. Cavallucci. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 2002 //Principles of Dental Imaging//. Lippincott Williams and Wilkin,. Larson, Clark Spencer. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 1995 "Biological Changes in Human Populations with Agriculture." //Annual Review of Anthropology// <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">........... 24: 185-213. Nicholson, Paul T., and Ian Shaw. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 2000 //Ancient Egyptian materials and technology//. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Nördstrom, Hans-Ake. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 2009 "The Nubian A-Group." Nubia Museum. http://www.numibia.net/nubia/intro.htm (accessed <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">........... April 21, 2009). Rampersand, Sabriana R. <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 2000 "Relationships of the Nubian A Group." //Journal of the American Research Center// 37 (2000): <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">........... 127-142. Roach, John <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.......... 2005 ""Antibiotic" Beer Gave Ancient Africans Health Buzz." National Geographic News. 16 May <span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">........... 2005. National Geographic. 15 Apr. 2009 <http://www.nationalgeographi.com/>

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